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1 Perret, Auguste
[br]b. 12 February 1874 Ixelles, near Brussels, Belgiumd. 26 February 1954 Le Havre (?), France[br]French architect who pioneered and established building design in reinforced concrete in a style suited to the modern movement.[br]Auguste Perret belonged to the family contracting firm of A. \& G.Perret, which early specialized in the use of reinforced concrete. His eight-storey building at 25 bis Rue Franklin in Paris, built in 1902–3, was the first example of frame construction in this material and established its viability for structural design. Both ground plan and façade are uncompromisingly modern, the simplicity of the latter being relieved by unobtrusive faience decoration. The two upper floors, which are set back, and the open terrace roof garden set a pattern for future schemes. All of Perret's buildings had reinforced-concrete structures and this was clearly delineated on the façade designs. The concept was uncommon in Europe at the time, when eclecticism still largely ruled, but was derived from the late nineteenth-century skyscraper façades built by Louis Sullivan in America. In 1905–6 came Perret's Garage Ponthieu in Paris; a striking example of exposed concrete, it had a central façade window glazed in modern design in rich colours. By the 1920s ferroconcrete was in more common use, but Perret still led the field in France with his imaginative, bold use of the material. His most original structure is the Church of Notre Dame at Le Raincy on the outskirts of Paris (1922–3). The imposing exterior with its tall tower in diminishing stages is finely designed, but the interior has magnificence. It is a wide, light church, the segmented vaulted roof supported on slender columns. The whole structure is in concrete apart from the glass window panels, which extend the full height of the walls all around the church. They provide a symphony of colour culminating in deep blue behind the altar. Because of the slenderness of the columns and the richness of the glass, this church possesses a spiritual atmosphere and unimpeded sight and sound of and from the altar for everyone. It became the prototype for churches all over Europe for decades, from Moser in prewar Switzerland to Spence's postwar Coventry Cathedral.In a long working life Perret designed buildings for a wide range of purposes, adhering to his preference for ferroconcrete and adapting its use according to each building's needs. In the 1940s he was responsible for the railway station at Amiens, the Atomic Centre at Saclay and, one of his last important works, the redevelopment after wartime damage of the town centre of Le Havre. For the latter, he laid out large open squares enclosed by prefabricated units, which display a certain monotony, despite the imposing town hall and Church of St Joseph in the Place de L'Hôtel de Ville.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident des Réunions Internationales des Architectes. American Society of the French Legion of Honour Gold Medal 1950. Elected after the Second World War to the Institut de France. First President of the International Union of Architects on its creation in 1948. RIBA Royal Gold Medal 1948.Further ReadingP.Blater, 1939, "Work of the architect A.Perret", Architektura SSSR (Moscow) 7:57 (illustrated article).1848 "Auguste Perret: a pioneer in reinforced concrete", Civil Engineers' Review, pp.296–300.Peter Collins, 1959, Concrete: The Vision of a New Architecture: A Study of Auguste Perret and his Precursors, Faber \& Faber.Marcel Zahar, 1959, D'Une Doctrine d'Architecture: Auguste Perret, Paris: Vincent Fréal.DY -
2 Preece, Sir William Henry
[br]b. 15 February 1834 Bryn Helen, Gwynedd, Walesd. 6 November 1913 Penrhos, Gwynedd, Wales[br]Welsh electrical engineer who greatly furthered the development and use of wireless telegraphy and the telephone in Britain, dominating British Post Office engineering during the last two decades of the nineteenth century.[br]After education at King's College, London, in 1852 Preece entered the office of Edwin Clark with the intention of becoming a civil engineer, but graduate studies at the Royal Institution under Faraday fired his enthusiasm for things electrical. His earliest work, as connected with telegraphy and in particular its application for securing the safe working of railways; in 1853 he obtained an appointment with the Electric and National Telegraph Company. In 1856 he became Superintendent of that company's southern district, but four years later he moved to telegraph work with the London and South West Railway. From 1858 to 1862 he was also Engineer to the Channel Islands Telegraph Company. When the various telegraph companies in Britain were transferred to the State in 1870, Preece became a Divisional Engineer in the General Post Office (GPO). Promotion followed in 1877, when he was appointed Chief Electrician to the Post Office. One of the first specimens of Bell's telephone was brought to England by Preece and exhibited at the British Association meeting in 1877. From 1892 to 1899 he served as Engineer-in-Chief to the Post Office. During this time he made a number of important contributions to telegraphy, including the use of water as part of telegraph circuits across the Solent (1882) and the Bristol Channel (1888). He also discovered the existence of inductive effects between parallel wires, and with Fleming showed that a current (thermionic) flowed between the hot filament and a cold conductor in an incandescent lamp.Preece was distinguished by his administrative ability, some scientific insight, considerable engineering intuition and immense energy. He held erroneous views about telephone transmission and, not accepting the work of Oliver Heaviside, made many errors when planning trunk circuits. Prior to the successful use of Hertzian waves for wireless communication Preece carried out experiments, often on a large scale, in attempts at wireless communication by inductive methods. These became of historic interest only when the work of Maxwell and Hertz was developed by Guglielmo Marconi. It is to Preece that credit should be given for encouraging Marconi in 1896 and collaborating with him in his early experimental work on radio telegraphy.While still employed by the Post Office, Preece contributed to the development of numerous early public electricity schemes, acting as Consultant and often supervising their construction. At Worcester he was responsible for Britain's largest nineteenth-century public hydro-electric station. He received a knighthood on his retirement in 1899, after which he continued his consulting practice in association with his two sons and Major Philip Cardew. Preece contributed some 136 papers and printed lectures to scientific journals, ninety-nine during the period 1877 to 1894.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCB 1894. Knighted (KCB) 1899. FRS 1881. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers, 1880. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1880, 1893. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1898–9. Chairman, Royal Society of Arts 1901–2.BibliographyPreece produced numerous papers on telegraphy and telephony that were presented as Royal Institution Lectures (see Royal Institution Library of Science, 1974) or as British Association reports.1862–3, "Railway telegraphs and the application of electricity to the signaling and working of trains", Proceedings of the ICE 22:167–93.Eleven editions of Telegraphy (with J.Sivewright), London, 1870, were published by 1895.1883, "Molecular radiation in incandescent lamps", Proceedings of the Physical Society 5: 283.1885. "Molecular shadows in incandescent lamps". Proceedings of the Physical Society 7: 178.1886. "Electric induction between wires and wires", British Association Report. 1889, with J.Maier, The Telephone.1894, "Electric signalling without wires", RSA Journal.1898, "Aetheric telegraphy", Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.Further ReadingJ.J.Fahie, 1899, History of Wireless Telegraphy 1838–1899, Edinburgh: Blackwood. E.Hawkes, 1927, Pioneers of Wireless, London: Methuen.E.C.Baker, 1976, Sir William Preece, F.R.S. Victorian Engineer Extraordinary, London (a detailed biography with an appended list of his patents, principal lectures and publications).D.G.Tucker, 1981–2, "Sir William Preece (1834–1913)", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 53:119–36 (a critical review with a summary of his consultancies).GW / KFBiographical history of technology > Preece, Sir William Henry
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3 Appleton, Sir Edward Victor
[br]b. 6 September 1892 Bradford, Englandd. 21 April 1965 Edinburgh, Scotland[br]English physicist awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the ionospheric layer, named after him, which is an efficient reflector of short radio waves, thereby making possible long-distance radio communication.[br]After early ambitions to become a professional cricketer, Appleton went to St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied under J.J.Thompson and Ernest Rutherford. His academic career interrupted by the First World War, he served as a captain in the Royal Engineers, carrying out investigations into the propagation and fading of radio signals. After the war he joined the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, as a demonstrator in 1920, and in 1924 he moved to King's College, London, as Wheatstone Professor of Physics.In the following decade he contributed to developments in valve oscillators (in particular, the "squegging" oscillator, which formed the basis of the first hard-valve time-base) and gained international recognition for research into electromagnetic-wave propagation. His most important contribution was to confirm the existence of a conducting ionospheric layer in the upper atmosphere capable of reflecting radio waves, which had been predicted almost simultaneously by Heaviside and Kennelly in 1902. This he did by persuading the BBC in 1924 to vary the frequency of their Bournemouth transmitter, and he then measured the signal received at Cambridge. By comparing the direct and reflected rays and the daily variation he was able to deduce that the Kennelly- Heaviside (the so-called E-layer) was at a height of about 60 miles (97 km) above the earth and that there was a further layer (the Appleton or F-layer) at about 150 miles (240 km), the latter being an efficient reflector of the shorter radio waves that penetrated the lower layers. During the period 1927–32 and aided by Hartree, he established a magneto-ionic theory to explain the existence of the ionosphere. He was instrumental in obtaining agreement for international co-operation for ionospheric and other measurements in the form of the Second Polar Year (1932–3) and, much later, the International Geophysical Year (1957–8). For all this work, which made it possible to forecast the optimum frequencies for long-distance short-wave communication as a function of the location of transmitter and receiver and of the time of day and year, in 1947 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics.He returned to Cambridge as Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1939, and with M.F. Barnett he investigated the possible use of radio waves for radio-location of aircraft. In 1939 he became Secretary of the Government Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, a post he held for ten years. During the Second World War he contributed to the development of both radar and the atomic bomb, and subsequently served on government committees concerned with the use of atomic energy (which led to the establishment of Harwell) and with scientific staff.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted (KCB 1941, GBE 1946). Nobel Prize for Physics 1947. FRS 1927. Vice- President, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 1932. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1933. Institute of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1946. Vice-Chancellor, Edinburgh University 1947. Institution of Civil Engineers Ewing Medal 1949. Royal Medallist 1950. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1962. President, British Association 1953. President, Radio Industry Council 1955–7. Légion d'honneur. LLD University of St Andrews 1947.Bibliography1925, joint paper with Barnett, Nature 115:333 (reports Appleton's studies of the ionosphere).1928, "Some notes of wireless methods of investigating the electrical structure of the upper atmosphere", Proceedings of the Physical Society 41(Part III):43. 1932, Thermionic Vacuum Tubes and Their Applications (his work on valves).1947, "The investigation and forecasting of ionospheric conditions", Journal of theInstitution of Electrical Engineers 94, Part IIIA: 186 (a review of British work on the exploration of the ionosphere).with J.F.Herd \& R.A.Watson-Watt, British patent no. 235,254 (squegging oscillator).Further ReadingWho Was Who, 1961–70 1972, VI, London: A. \& C.Black (for fuller details of honours). R.Clark, 1971, Sir Edward Appleton, Pergamon (biography).J.Jewkes, D.Sawers \& R.Stillerman, 1958, The Sources of Invention.KFBiographical history of technology > Appleton, Sir Edward Victor
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4 office
управление; департамент; комитет; отдел; бюро; секретариат, канцелярия; разг. кабина экипажаJoint Service Cruise Missile Program [Project] office — объединенное управление разработки КР (для ВВС и ВМС)
office of Information, Navy — информационное управление ВМС
office of Research, Development and Evaluation — управление НИОКР ВМС
office of the Chief, Army Reserve — управление резерва СВ
office of the Comptroller, Navy — управление главного финансового инспектора ВМС
office of the Deputy COFS for Research, Development and Acquisition — управление заместителя НШ по НИОКР и закупкам (СВ)
office, Aerospace Research — управление воздушно-космических исследований
office, Analysis and Review — управление анализа и контроля потребностей
office, Armor Force Management and Standardization — управление по вопросам администрации и стандартизации бронетанковых войск
office, Assistant COFS for Force Development — управление ПНШ по строительству ВС
office, Assistant COFS for Intelligence — управление ПНШ по разведке
office, Assistant COFS — управление [отдел] ПНШ
office, Assistant Secretary of Defense — аппарат [секретариат] ПМО
office, Chief of Chaplains — управление начальника службы военных священников (СВ)
office, Chief of Civil Affairs — управление по связям с гражданской администрацией и населением
office, Chief of Engineers — управление начальника инженерных войск
office, Chief of Finance (and Accounting) — управление начальника финансовой службы (СВ)
office, Chief of Legislative Liaison — отдел связи с законодательными органами
office, Chief of Ordnance — управление начальника артиллерийско-технической службы (СВ)
office, Chief of R&D — управление НИОКР (СВ)
office, Chief of Transportation — управление [отдел] начальника транспортной службы
office, Chief, Chemical Corps — управление начальника химической службы
office, COFS for Operations — оперативное управление НШ
office, COFS, Army — аппарат НШ СВ
office, Consolidated Personnel — управление гражданских рабочих и служащих
office, Coordinator of Army Studies — управление координатора разработок СВ
office, Defense Transportation — управление военно-транспортной службы
office, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations, Air Warfare — управление заместителя НШ ВМС по боевому применению авиации
office, Deputy COFS for Aviation — отдел заместителя НШ по авиации (МП)
office, Deputy COFS for Installations and Logistics — управление заместителя НШ по расквартированию и тыловому обеспечению
office, Deputy COFS for Manpower — управление заместителя НШ по людским ресурсам
office, Deputy COFS for Operations and Training — управление заместителя НШ по оперативной и боевой подготовке
office, Deputy COFS for Plans and Logistics — управление заместителя НШ по планированию тылового обеспечения
office, Development and Engineering — отдел технических разработок (ЦРУ)
office, Development and Weapon Systems Analysis — управление разработки и анализа систем вооружения
office, Director of Development Planning — управление планирования строительства (ВВС)
office, Director of Foreign Intelligence — управление начальника внешней разведки
office, Distribution Services — отдел распределения и рассылки картографических изданий (МО)
office, Economic Research — отдел экономических исследований (ЦРУ)
office, Emergency Transportation — управление чрезвычайных перевозок
office, Employment Policy and Grievance Review — отдел по вопросам занятости и рассмотрению жалоб (СВ)
office, Federal Procurement Policy — управление разработки федеральной политики в области закупок
office, Force Planning and Analysis — управление планирования и анализа строительства ВС
office, General Council — управление генерального юрисконсульта
office, Geographic and Cartographic Research — отдел географических и картографических исследований (ЦРУ)
office, Imagery Analysis — отдел анализа видовой информации (ЦРУ)
office, Information and Legal Affairs — управление информации и права (МО)
office, Information for. the Armed Forces — управление информации ВС
office, JCS — аппарат КНШ
office, Judge Advocate General — управление начальника военно-юридической службы
office, Management and Budget — административно-бюджетное управление
office, Military Assistance — управление по оказанию военной помощи
office, Personnel Manager — отдел кадров (СВ)
office, Services and Information Agency — отдел управления информационного обеспечения
office, Special Assistant for Logistical Support of Army Aircraft — отдел специального помощника по вопросам МТО армейской авиации
office, Special Assistant for Logistical Support of Tactical Communications — отдел специального помощника по вопросам МТО тактических систем связи
office, the Inspector General — управление генерального инспектора
office, the Legislative Affairs — управление военного законодательства
office, Under Secretary of Navy — аппарат заместителя министра ВМС
office, Under Secretary of the Air Force — аппарат заместителя министра ВВС
Personnel, Plans and Training office — отдел по вопросам ЛС, планирования и боевой подготовки
Strategic Objectives [Targets] Planning office — управление планирования стратегических задач (КНШ)
Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Night Observation System office — управление разработки систем наблюдения, засечки целей и ПНВ
— Resources Management office -
5 group
army group, Royal Artillery — Бр. армейская группа ПА
army group, Royal Engineers — Бр. армейская инженерная группа
C3 Countermeasures Working group — рабочая группа по вопросам РЭП систем оперативного управления и связи
combat equipment group, Europe — группа обеспечения войск оружием и военной техникой в Европейской зоне (для сил двойного базирования)
European Interdepartment group, NSC — Европейская межведомственная группа СНБ
intelligence data (technical) processing group — группа (технической) обработки разведывательных данных
Standing group, Military Committee — постоянная группа военного комитета НАТО
tactical air (control) group — мор. группа наведения авиации
— address indicating group— FA group— HQ group— launching control group* * *• 1) группа; 2) дивизия• 1) группироваться; 2) группировать
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